amber – Coconino Lapidary Club

PALEONTOLOGY OF AMBER

Mineral Man Mel — Fri, 23 Oct 2020 18:11:00 +0000

In this Blog I’ll describe how biomaterials including animal and plant fossils are included and preserved in amber formed from tree resin, which by its stickiness can entrap objects which contact its surface as shown in Figure . With further addition of the resin the object is sealed within the resin and out of the surrounding biotic environment. With the passing of geological time amber forms from the resin and encloses the organism as described in the legend of Figure 1-[Ref1,2].

Figure 1. Taphonomy (Process of the formation) of amber with preserved organisms[Ref16].

In the environment external to the tree in which the amber forms, oxidation and temperature extremes and biotic factors such as bacteria and scavengers accelerate decomposition of an organism; instead the environment within the tree resin capturing the organism provides protection against the biotic environment, allowing the preservation processes to proceed to fossilization. Following entrapment of the organism within the resin, the continuing loss of volatile oils called olio-resins from the resin, which continues through evaporation, coupled with polymerization reactions of terpenoids to form a large network of molecules and other organic compounds result in the formation of amber with time. Under conditions that are not extreme, the amber is impervious to the outside environment and shields the fossilized material during its preservation. Studies of factors affecting preservation have shown that the type of tree resin, hence its chemistry and possible chemical attack on the material, the degree of dehydration, and activity of gut microorganisms are some major factors affecting the preservation of soft tissues of organisms[Ref16,17].

Gallery of Some Fossils Preserved in Amber

Some of the most extraordinary discovered fossils range from insects to plants and animals preserved in amber. —“[Ref3]. To illustrate, a Gallery of some unusual, and representative preserved fossils which I found very interesting are shown beautifully in the following figures.

Figure 2. Lyme Disease spirochete-like bacteria (Borrelia burgdorferi)are present in a tick preserved in15-20 million-year-old Dominican amber[Ref4]. The bacteria are present as the approximately 1-mm sized brown-black spheres located between the juncture of the legs and the body of the tick.

Figure 3. The flea Atopopsyllus cionus, a genus entirely new to science, is preserved in 20 million-year-old Dominican amber[Ref5]. The brown-colored rod-like and spherical bacteria seen within the flea are similar to the bubonic plague bacteria (Yersinia pestis). This fossil specimen may show an early connection between insects and pathogenic microorganisms.

Figure 4. A millipede preserved in 99 million-year-old Burmese amber differed in appearance from those of the order existing today, Callipodia, and was called Burmanopetallum inexpectatum[Ref6].

Figure 5. A baby salamander of the extinct species Palaeoplethodon hispaniolae preserved in 20 million year-old Dominican amber[Ref7]. The fossil revealed that salamanders once lived on an island in the Caribbean Sea where they are now absent. The lack of a forelimb reveals attack by predator before entrapment in the parent resin with following containment in amber.

Figure 6. Tufted tube-likeand protofeathers of a dinosaur preserved in 78-79 million-year-old Canadia amber{Ref8,9,10]

Figure 7. A 47.5 millimeter-long baby snake preserved in 99 million-year-old Cretaceous amber found in Myanmar[Ref11]. Its taxonomy is connected to snakes from Argentina, India, and India.

Figure 8. Mammalian hair preserved in amber which 100 million years ago
In the Cretaceous in Era and found at Charentes, France[Ref12,13]. With the scale bar in Panel “a” being 100 μm length the diameter of the hair is seen vary between 32 and 48 μm and the hair to be ~ 2.4 mm in length. In panel “b” the fossil hair is seen to comprise be hollow surrounded with a layer of brown carbonaceous material replacing the cuticle and with irregular shaped grey carbonaceous debris. In Panels “d” and “e” the wavy scale pattern and markings on the cuticle are shown clearly.

Figure 9. Leaves of the carnivorous plant Roridula gorgonias preserved in Eocene Baltic Amber between35 and 47 million years-go and found near Kaliningrad, R.ussia[Ref14]. The venom containing glands project laterally from the surface region of the leaf away from the axis of the plant. Scale bars: A and B; 1mm, C 100μm.

Figure 10. Flower of the plant species Strychnos electri preserved between
45 and 15 million years ago in Dominican amber[Ref15]. Being of the Genus Strychnos; the plant may have been poisonous.

Biomaterials Found Preserved in Amber

Preserved biomaterials range from biochemicals to fossilized cells, tissues, and entire organisms. Representative examples of these preserved biomaterials are presented below in TABLES I, II, III, and IV.

None of the structural biomolecules of animal and plant life forms are preserved intact in amber. Instead chemical reactions acting on the chitin within the cuticle of arthropods and within the cell walls of fungi and plants, and on the proteins within feathers, cuticle, and soft tissues of animals, respectively form polysaccharides and amino acids as summarized and referenced in TABLE –. Of pigmented biomolecules red hemeporphyrins and melanin are preserved as seen in the table while carotenoids are not.

Recovery of geologically ancient DNA would be of immense value to biology.

However, according to the paper by Hebsgaard, et al[Ref18], the authenticity of the reports of the presence of DNA being found preserved in amber, References 12,16,17,19,23,24 in the paper, is questionable. As stated in the paper by Hebsgaard et al in Box 2 of their paper, “It is concerning that all claims published to date on DNA surviving over geological time spans have not followed the most fundamental of these authentication criteria.”

Biochemicals which have been found in amber are summarized in TABLE I. Examples of preserved bio-materials ranging from bio-chemicals are described with illustrated references in TABLE I, and from tissues to organisms are described in the text and summarized with illustrated references in TABLE II, and in TABLE & III.

TABLE I . SOME EXAMPLES OF BIOMOLECULES FOUND PRESERVED IN AMBER

BIOMOLECULE	BIOLOGICAL SOURCE	GEOLOGICAL AGE (Million-years-ago)	REFERENCE
N-acetylglucosamine	Fungus Chitin	Cretaceous, 138-66	19, 20
β-1,3 and β- 1,4-linked polysaccharides	Fungus Chitin	Cretaceous, 138-66 Mya	19
Amino Acids	Feather Keratin Insect Protein	Cretaceous extending into Eocene, 99-44 Tertiary – Creataceous 130-40 Mya	21 22
Melanin	Feather	Eocene, 66-23 Mya	23

Cells and both soft and hard tissues are found preserved in amber as shown in TABLE II.

TABLE II. EXAMPLES OF ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS AND TISSUES PRESERVED IN AMBER

TISSUE	HOST	GEOLOGICAL AGE	REFERENCE	FIGURE NUMBER
Flight Muscle, fibers and mitochondria	Fly	Miocene 23-5 Mya	24	Figure 2C
Neural, axons & glial cells	Beetle	Oligocene 34-23 Mya	25	Plate1, Figures 5 & 6
Eye, Lens, pigment cells, crystalline cone	Fly	Eocene, 45 Mya	26	Figure 1
Cuticle scales	Cockroach, Beetle, Grass-hopper	Cretaceous, ~130 Mya	27	Figure 8
*Cuticle & soft tissues in sections	Fly		28,29
Blood, Red Blood Cells	Monkey, Tick	Oligocene, 30-15 Mya	30	Three figures
Feathers	Dinosaur	Cretaceous, ~ 105 Mya	31	Three figures
Bone	Lizard	Miocene, ~20 Mya	32	Figures 1, S1 & S2
Cypress Plant	—-	Eocene, ~45 Mya	33	Figures 1 & 2
Fern	—-	Cretaceous. ~98 Mya	34	Figures 1 & 2
Liverwort	—-	Cretacwous ~100Mya	35	Figures 1-10

*Images obtained by micro CT scanning.

Some animals from the Cretaceous Era into the Miocene Era found preserved in amber are presented in TABLE III.

TABLE III. SOME ANIMALS FOUND PRESERVED IN AMBER

PHYLUM/Animal	GEOLOGICAL AGE (MILLION YEARS AGO)	REFERENCE	FIGURE NUMBER IN REFERENCE/ NUMBERS OF FIGURES
MOLLUSCS
Snail	Cretaceous ~99	36	Figures 1-7
Ammonite	Cretaceous ~99	37	Five figures
ARTHROPODS
Fly	Cretaceous 135-65	38	One figure
Beetle	Cretaceous ~100	39	One figure
Bee	Cretaceous ~100	40	Ten figures
Millipede	Cretaceous ~99	41	Two figures
Scorpion	Miocene 23-15	42	Three figures
VERTEBRATES
Salamander	Oligocene 30-20	43	One figure
Lizard	Cretaceous ~99	44	One figure
Snake	Cretaceous ~99	45	One figure
Dinosaur	Cretaceous ~99	46,47	k-one figure., l-one figure
Bird	Cretaceous ~99	48	One figure
MAMMAL
Shrew-like	Cretaceous	49	None

Some plants living from the Cretaceous Era into the Eocene Era found preserved in amber are presented in TAVLE IV.

TABLE IV . SOME PLANTS FOUND PRESERVED IN AMBER

PHYLUM/Plant or Plant Organ	GEOLOGICAL AGE {MILLION YEARS AGO (Mya)}	REFERENCE	FIGURE NUMBER OR THEIR NUMBER PRESENT

Mosses	Tertiary 66-2.6	50	1-15
Liverworts	Eocene, ~48-34	51	1-3
GYMNOSPERMS
Pine	Eocene, ~48-34	52	One
Conifer	Cretaceous ~100-94	53,54
ANGIOSPERMS
Flower similar to Christmas Bush	Cretaceous ~100	55	Three
Asterid flower	Oligocene into Miocene, ~ 25	56,57	One

References:

Ref 1.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/brv.12414

Ref 2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/brv.12414

https://www.britannica.com/science/geologic-time

Ref 3. https://www.palaeontologyonline.com/articles/2015/fossil-focus-amber/?doing_wp_cron=1596751809.3462929725646972656250

Ref 4. https://www.lymedisease.org/news-ancient-lyme-bacteria-preserved-in-amber-2/

Ref 5. http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/science-flea-atopopsyllus-cionus-bubonic-plague-03289.html

Ref 6. https://www.cnet.com/news/millipede-trapped-in-amber-for-99-million-years-gets-its-moment-to-shine/

Ref 7. https://today.oregonstate.edu/archives/2015/aug/first-ever-discovery-salamander-amber-sheds-light-evolution-caribbean-islands

Ref 8. https://www.forbes.com/sites/shaenamontanari/2015/08/13/the-six-most-incredible-fossils-preserved-in-amber/#25cc68e97664

Ref 9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feathered_dinosaur

Ref 10. https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2011/09/dinofuzz-found-canadian-amber

Ref 11. https://perfectmarketresearch.com/worlds-first-baby-99-years-old-snake-fossil-discovered-preserved-in-amber/

Ref 12. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44597148_Mammalian_hairs_in_Early_Cretaceous_amber

Ref 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charente

Ref 14. https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2014/11/25/1414777111.full.pdf

Ref 15. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/new-species-prehistoric-flower-discovered-preserved-amber-180958156/

Ref 16. https://www.scienceinschool.org/2011/issue19/amber

Ref 17. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5886561/

Ref 18. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.174.1583&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Ref 19 https://ddd.uab.cat/pub/geoact/geoact_a2015m12v13n4/geoact_a2015m12v13n4p363.pdf

Ref 20. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Acetylglucosamine

Ref 21. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-42938-9

Ref 22. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0016703794901856

Ref 23. https://www.nature.com/articles/srep05226

Ref 24. https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/24696/paleo_Labandeira_Paleont._Soc._Pap._2014.pdf

Ref 25. https://www.palass.org/sites/default/files/media/publications/palaeontology/volume_35/vol35_part4_pp901-912.pdf

Ref 26. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2008.1467

Ref 27. file:///Users/millardjudy/Downloads/Crato_Insect-Intro-1.pdf

Ref 28. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=EDF29E1628FBE7094B5102DAFC1A7120?doi=10.1.1.708.4830&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Ref f29 https://www.microphotonics.com/what-is-micro-ct-an-introduction/

Ref 30. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/first-fossilized-mammal-blood-found-amber-encased-tick-180962784/

Ref 31. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/lice-filled-dinosaur-feathers-found-trapped-100-million-year-old-amber-180973727/

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/lice-filled-dinosaur-feathers-found-trapped-100-million-year-old-amber-180973727/

Ref 32. https://www.pnas.org/content/112/32/9961

Ref 33. https://www.pnas.org/content/112/32/9961

Ref 34. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1634957/

Ref 35. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ledis_Regalado/publication/311552727_The_first_fossil_of_Lindsaeaceae_Polypodiales_from_the_Cretaceous_amber_forest_of_Myanmar/links/5a30064baca27271ec89e6a1/The-first-fossil-of-Lindsaeaceae-Polypodiales-from-the-Cretaceous-amber-forest-of-Myanmar.pdf

Ref 36. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-51840-3

Ref 37. https://blog.everythingdinosaur.co.uk/blog/_archives/2019/05/23/ammonite-shell-preserved-in-amber-from-myanmar.html

Ref 38 http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/science-assassin-flies-burmese-amber-01874.html

Ref 39. https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/fossilized-beetle-reveals-ancient-plant-insect-interactions-64649

Ref 40 https://www.museumoftheearth.org/bees/evolution-fossil-record

Ref 41 https://www.cnet.com/news/millipede-trapped-in-amber-for-99-million-years-gets-its-moment-to-shine/

Ref 42. https://www.reddit.com/r/Amberfossil/comments/ip8lg8/a_rare_male_scorpion_preserved_in_amber_was/

Ref 43. https://www.cnet.com/news/ancient-salamander-in-amber-is-a-scientific-surprise/

Ref 44. https://cosmosmagazine.com/biology/the-history-of-life-in-golden-stones/

Ref 45. https://newatlas.com/prehistoric-snake-amber/55519/

Ref 46. https://www-staging.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/06/dinosaur-bird-feather-burma-amber-myanmar-flying-paleontology-enantiornithes/

Ref 47 https://www.sciencealert.com/99-million-year-old-dinosaur-wings-found-preserved-in-amber

Ref 48. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/06/baby-bird-dinosaur-burmese-amber-fossil/

Ref 49. https://www.wired.com/2010/05/tiny-treasures-100-million-year-old-mammal-hairs-trapped-in-amber/

Ref 50. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jhbl/74/0/74_249/_pdf

Ref 51. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128130124000127

Ref 52 https://www.ambertreasure4u.com/index.php?route=product/product&product_id=2575

Ref 53. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5218381/

Ref 54. https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-1-d&q=geological+cenomanian+age

Ref 55. https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/stunning-100millionyearold-flowers-found-perfectly-preserved-in-amber/

Ref 56. https://www.newscientist.com/article/2077484-beautiful-amber-fossil-flower-reveals-plant-history-of-new-world/

Ref 57. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/asterids/asterid.html

MINERAL STUFF: AMBER, THE GEM

Mineral Man Mel — Tue, 29 Sep 2020 17:03:00 +0000

Amber is a hard resin formed from tree sap by fossilization and is many millions of years old[Ref1]. Since Neolithic times (about 9000-3000 BC) and before the Copper Age[Ref]2) amber has been highly valued as a gemstone and used to create beautiful jewelry and artworks. Wide use of amber in Early Europe and in the area of the Mediterranean Sea is shown in jewelry and artworks displayed in Figures 2-7. Works from the Medieval Era to the present are shown in Figures 8-13.

In this Blog chemical and physical properties of amber which underlie its beauty and use as a gem are described in descriptions of its chemical and mechanical properties, and the sources of its colors. Also preservation of fossils of insects and other organisms in amber is described briefly.

AMBER IN ANCIENT EUROPE

As shown in Figure 1 amber from sites (red) where amber was found in Ancient Europe were distributed widely from their greatest concentrations along the coast of the Baltic Sea and along the North Sea coast along Jutland. As indicated by the routes indicted in black and red movement of amber could proceed from the North and Baltic Seas to Mediterranean countries terminating in what are now Italy and Greece[Ref]. Collateral routes led to the Black Sea, Syria, and Egypt[Ref3]. Amber was moved further Eastward along the Great Silk Road to China and Southeast Asia[Ref4]. Collateral routes between sites of origin over what is now Europe to the major North-South routes served to distribute locally mined amber around the continent.

Figure 1. Amber sources and trade routes in
Ancient Europe[Ref3].

AMBER JEWELRY AND ART WORKS FROM ANCIENT TIMES INTO MODERN TIMES

Figure 2.Etruscan pendant, Foreprts of a wild boar, 525-480 BC[Ref5].

Figure 3. Italic carving of horse head in profile, 500-400 BC[Ref5].

Figure 4. Italic or Etruscan necklace with carved amber scarab beetle and large carnelian beads mounted in gold, 550-=400 BC[Ref4].

Figure 5. Greek gold necklace with amber beads mounted in gold. 6^th-4th Century BC[Ref5]

Figure 7. Amber intaglio finger ring, Egypt, New Kingdom, 1550-712 BC[Ref5].

Figure 6. Roman amber amulet carved in shape of gladiator’s helmet, circa 1^st-2^nd Century AD[Ref6].

Figure 7 Roman die carved from amber, 100-200 AD[Ref5]

Figure 8. Amber Paternoster, Middel European, circa 1260 AD[Ref7].

Figure 9. Amber greyhound pendant, Czecj 1600[Ref8].

Figure 10. Amber in gold earrings, Georgian Era, 1714-1830 AD[Ref9].

Figure 11. Necklace with amber set in gold, Italian, circa 1860-1870[Ref10].

Figure 12. Egyptian Revival amber and opal necklace set in gold, Art Nouveau,
1890-1910[Ref11].

Figure13. Art Deco styled amber earrings set in Russian Silver Gold Vermeil, Recent[Ref12].

THE CHEMISTRY OF AMBER

The fossilization of tree sap into amber proceeds by crosslinking of di-terpenoid and tri-terpenoid molecules by free-radical polymerization[Ref13,14]. Over the millions of years during which crosslinking occurs to form polymers; polymerization, and cyclisation also occur resulting in new chemical compounds[Ref13,15,16]. The resulting mixture of substances can be described in terms of its carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen contents by the formula C₁₀H₁₆O_.Sulfur comprising up to 1% of chemical species may also be present[Ref].

SOURCES OF THE COLORS OF AMBER

Figure 14. Colors of Baltic amber[Ref17].

AMBER PIGMENTS

Studies[Ref18-27] on specimens of amber gathered from worldwide sources have shown that members of the chemical terpenoid family[Ref13] as well as other chemical species can contribute to the yellow to brown, red, and black colors of amber as shown by specimens of Baltic Amber in Figure 14.

As an example a study conducted on Baltic amber separation by liquid chromatography* showed separation of terpenoids and unsaturated organic compounds showed colors ranging between yellow, shades of red, and brown as shown in Tables I and II [Ref25]. These colors have been found in amber gathered from around the world.

*In separation of chemical species by liquid chromatography[Ref27] specific chemicals are used to sequester other chemical species which transport at different rates during separation by gravity resulting in degrees of separation from their collective position which range between 1.00 and 0.00 as shown by the example in Figure 15 .

Figure 15. Positions of separated chemical compounds in thin film chromatography. The positions of each is unique[Ref27].

AMBER WITH COLOR DUE TO FLUORESCENCE

Some amber from the Dominican Republic exhibits a strong Cobalt Blue fluorescenceas shown in Figure 16[Ref28]; some amber found in the Baltic, the Ukraine, Far-Eastern Russia, and Sumatra also exhibit blue fluorescence[[29,32]. Studies on these ambers have shown that the blue fluorescence in ambers from the Dominican Republic and Sumatra stems from the ring-like organic molecule perylene[Ref28,30,31] and that from the amber from Far-Eastern Russia stems from the pyrene eximer[Ref29,34,35].

Figure 16. Blue-colored amber from the Dominican Republic. The color is due to fluorescence[Ref27].

PHYSICAL PROPERIES OF AMBER

Being an organic resin amber is amorphous with no crystalline structure; accordingly it is not classified as a mineral but as a mineraloid, a mineral-like material[Ref36]. It’s Mohs Hardness is in the range 1-3 and it fractures in brittle fashion but is tough in its tenacity at temperatures near room value.[Ref36]. At

higher temperatures near210°C amber can be bent, allowing repair of amber pipe stems, as well as formed by pressing and sintering pieces together[Ref37.38]. The latter process allows construction of art objects such as a box as shown in Figure 17. [Ref39].

Figure 17. Box constructed of pressed and heated Baltic amber[Ref39].

PALEONTOLOGY OF AMBER

Organisms and organic matter such as a feather can be trapped and ultimately over long time become inclusions in amber. With initial entrapment on the surface of amber and subsequent deposit of more amber organism can be entrapped as shown in the sequence in Figures 18 and 19. A great variety of organisms can be preserved as shown in Figure . Following initial and subsequent deposits of sticky amber and entrapment episodes a volume of amber containing fossils is attained[Ref40].

Figure 18 . Organisms preserved in amber. The legend for this Figure is shown in
Figure 19 [Ref40].

Figure 19 . Legend for organisms in Figure 18. {Ref40].

REFERENCES: AMBER

Ref 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber

Ref 2. https://www.ancient.eu/Amber/

Ref 3. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amber_sources_in_Europe.jpg

Ref 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber_Road

Ref 5. http://museumcatalogues.getty.edu/amber/objects/37/

Ref 6. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/373869206562406397/

Ref 7. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/438397344957150618/

Ref 8. http://shewhoworshipscarlin.tumblr.com/post/134242133432/greyhound-pendant-1600

Ref 9. https://www.1stdibs.com/jewelry/earrings/dangle-earrings/georgian-amber-gold-earrings/id-j_202058/